To be able to teach accurate English pronunciation to learners for whom English is their second language, teachers and tutors require a detailed knowledge of how sounds are made so they can demonstrate and explain the various vowel and consonant sounds.

(a) Breath Flow
(b) Organs of Speech
(c) Voiced or Voiceless

Learners need to know that consonant sounds are made when the breath, coming from the mouth or throat, is either partially or completely obstructed by the tongue, the teeth or the lips.

There are three methods of classifying the sounds.

1. The first relates to breath flow.
2. The second method depends on which organ of speech is mainly used when the sound is produced.
3. The final classification is according to whether the sound is being made with or without vibration of the vocal chords.

Breath flow

When sounds such as “p..”, “b..”, “t..”, “d..”, “k..” and the hard “g..” (goat)” are made, the breath is completely stopped and then released with an explosive action. A degree of obstruction
also occurs in the case of “f.., v.., s.., z.., sh.., zh..” and “th..” but the breath then continues. “r..” and “l..” (and sometimes “m..” and “n..”) are produced by a partial stoppage but they tend to “flow” on.
Some of these consonant sounds can also be broken into “hissing” and “nasal” groups, e.g. “s.., z.., sh.., zh..” and “m.., n.., ng..”. The “ng” sound is heard in sang, bunk and zinc and has a distinct “twanging”, nasal sound.

Organ of speech

Under the “Organs of Speech” classification, sounds are grouped as

(i) Labial or lip sounds
(ii) Dental or teeth sounds
(iii) Guttural or throat sounds
(iv) Palatal or palate sounds.

Consonants “p.., b.., f.., v.., m..” and “w..” are made when the breath is restricted by closing the lips. Consonants “t.., d.., th..” and “n..” rely on the use of upper teeth. In contrast, “g..”, “k..” and “y..” are formed by raising the back of the tongue, the latter against the palate proper.

Vibration

In category three, the consonants are divided into “voiced” - “sharp” sounds or as “voiceless” - “whispered” sounds.

Compare “d..” in dig with “p..” in pot. The difference is not always easy to pick. By placing the tip of a finger on one’s throat, one can feel a vibrating effect that varies in intensity depending on the sound being produced.

The same “finger-on-the-throat” test is useful to distinguish between the two sounds of “th..” in this which is “voiced”, and “th..” in thumb which is “voiceless”.

Equipped with this knowledge, teachers can readily correct pronunciation errors, while learners are more likely to imitate accurate reproductions of sounds given that they are aware of which organs of speech are used and how they are used.

Learners quickly and easily see the difference between the regular vowels and their consonant counterparts particularly when they know the former are made using the lips and mouth without obstruction. Again, the different “th” sound heard in this and thumb are more easily imitated when it is known that the position of the tongue changes in relation to the teeth.

As the phonemes are encountered, being able to classify their production in terms of how (manner) and where (place) they are articulated is advantageous.

For example, the production of phonemes such as “p” and “t” are better understood when there is an awareness of their “plosive” nature. Moreover, knowing whether a consonant is “voiced” or “voiceless” also can assist with pronunciation.

It is important to teach that when the frontal or preceding consonant is “voiced” such as “g”, the final “s” in a word says “z..”, e.g. goes and rags. In contrast, when the preceding consonant
is “voiceless” such as “t” and “f”, the final “s” says “s..”, e.g. bats and cliffs.

A common example is “ed”. When the “ed” combination is on the end of a “voiced” word, i.e. one containing “voiced” consonants such as “g” and “r”, “ed” says “d..” as in gagged and raced. However, in “ed” words containing “voiceless” consonants such as “p” and “t”, “ed” is often pronounced as “t..”, e.g. popped, tapped. This oral distinction between “t..” and “d..” in “ed”-ending words is not always distinctive and often depends on an individual’s personal pronunciation.

The voiced and voiceless consonants

Voiced: “d”, “b”, “g”, “j”, “m”, “n”, “ng”, “l”, “r”, “v”, “w”, “y”, “z”, “zh”, “th” (this).
Voiceless: “t”, “f”, “k”, “s”, “p”, ”ch”, “sh”, “th” (thumb).

For a free copy of the 4S Consonant Variation Chart, e-mail: contact @4Sliteracy.com.au.

(The author is a former politician, an educator and the director of the Australian International Language Academy).